Surface integrity could limit the potential of concrete as a bio-enhanced material in the marine environment.

Coastal sprawl is among the main drivers of global degradation of shallow marine ecosystems. Among artificial substrates, quarry rock can have faster recruitment of benthic organisms compared to traditional concrete, which is more versatile for construction. However, the factors driving these differences are poorly understood. In this context, this study was designed to compare the intertidal and subtidal benthic and epibenthic assemblages on concrete and artificial basalt boulders in six locations of Madeira Island (northeastern Atlantic, Portugal). To assess the size of the habitat, the shorelines in the study area were quantified using satellite images, resulting in >34 % of the south coast of Madeira being artificial. Benthic assemblages differed primarily between locations and secondarily substrates. Generally, assemblages differed between substrates in the subtidal, with lower biomass and abundance in concrete than basalt. We conclude that these differences are not related to chemical effects (e.g., heavy metals) but instead to a higher detachment rate of calcareous biocrusts from concrete, as surface abrasion is faster in concrete than basalt. Consequently, surface integrity emerges as a factor of ecological significance in coastal constructions. This study advances knowledge on the impact and ecology of artificial shorelines, providing a baseline for future research towards ecological criteria for coastal protection and management.

Exploring foraging preference of local fish species towards non-indigenous fouling communities near marinas: Insights from Remote Video Foraging System (RVFS) trials.

Non-indigenous species (NIS) spread from marinas to natural environments is influenced by niche availability, habitat suitability, and local biotic resistance. This study explores the effect of indigenous fish feeding behaviour on NIS proliferation using fouling communities, pre-grown on settlement plates, as two distinct, representative models: one from NIS-rich marinas and the other from areas outside marinas with fewer NIS. These plates were mounted on a Remote Video Foraging System (RVFS) near three marinas on Madeira Island. After 24-h, NIS abundance was reduced by 3.5 %. Canthigaster capistrata's preference for marinas plates suggests potential biotic resistance. However, Sparisoma cretense showed equal biting frequencies for both plate types. The cryptogenic ascidian Trididemnum cereum was the preferred target for the fish. Our study introduces a global framework using RVFS for in-situ experiments, replicable across divers contexts (e.g., feeding behaviour, biotic resistance), which can be complemented by metabarcoding and isotopic analysis to confirm consumption patterns.

New species and new records of bryozoan species from fouling communities in the Madeira Archipelago (NE Atlantic).

Hull fouling is considered to be the most significant vector of introduction of marine non-indigenous species (NIS) in the Madeira Archipelago (NE Atlantic) because these islands provide a vital passage route for many ships. The transfer of species between boat hulls and artificial substrates in marinas is known to be high. Bryozoans are among the most common groups of marine invertebrates growing on this type of substrate. In recent years, significant advances have been made in our knowledge about the biodiversity of bryozoans in the Madeira Archipelago. Nonetheless, the currently recognized numbers remain far from reflecting the actual bryozoan species richness. In this context, we examine bryozoan samples stemming from NIS monitoring surveys on artificial substrates along the southern coast of the Madeira Archipelago, in four recreational marinas and in two offshore aquaculture farms. This has yielded new information about ten bryozoan species. Two of them, Crisia noronhai sp. nov. and Amathia maderensis sp. nov., are described for the first time, although at least the first one was previously recorded from Madeira but misidentified. Bugula ingens, Cradoscrupocellaria insularis, Scruparia ambigua, and Celleporaria brunnea are recorded for the first time in Madeira. Moreover, the material of C. brunnea was compared with the type, and a biometric analysis was performed with material from the Atlantic and Mediterranean. All samples identified as C. brunnea in both regions are the same species, and the variations described in the literature apparently reflect high intracolonial variability. Finally, we provide new information for the descriptions of 4 additional bryozoans, namely, Crisia sp. aff. elongata, Cradoscrupocellaria bertholletii, Scrupocaberea maderensis, and Tricellaria inopinata.

Testing differences of marine non-indigenous species diversity across Macaronesia using a standardised approach.

The introduction of non-indigenous species (NIS) induces severe impacts on marine biodiversity and ecosystems. Macaronesia is an ecologically relevant region where several NIS were detected recently. For the first time, a standard experimental approach was designed to examine biofouling assemblages and investigate NIS across the region. In this context, sessile biofouling assemblages were examined in four recreational marinas in all the Macaronesian archipelagos from 2018 to 2020: the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, and Cabo Verde. We hypothesised that NIS numbers, abundance, and recruitment differed in each location due to abiotic and biotic features. From the Azores (higher latitudes) to Cabo Verde (lower latitudes), NIS recruitment and percentage cover decreased following a partial latitude gradient. The present study unveiled 25 NIS, with new records for the Azores (two cryptogenic species), Canary Islands (one NIS and two cryptogenic species), and Cabo Verde (three NIS and three cryptogenic species). The present research represents a pioneer and relevant step in advancing our current understanding of marine biological invasions in Macaronesia, employing a standard and low-cost approach.

Predation facilitates the abundance of biofouling non-indigenous species in estuarine marinas in NE Atlantic Portugal.

Harbours are highly modified habitats that differ from natural areas. They are hotspots of non-indigenous species (NIS) and act as stepping-stones in invasive processes. However, local communities can exert biotic resistance against biological invasions through trophic interactions and competition. This study assesses the biotic effects of predation on the recruitment of fouling assemblages in three marinas of NE Atlantic Portugal (Cascais, Setúbal and Sines), with particular emphasis on NIS, using predator exclusion experiments. Predation increased the relative abundance of NIS, mainly Watersipora subatra, in the estuarine marinas of Cascais and Setúbal, while no predation effects were registered in the coastal marina of Sines. Therefore, predation can increase the risk of NIS invasion (biotic facilitation). Furthermore, local ecosystems may have different effects and differ in vulnerability against NIS invasions. Finally, a better understanding of coastal invasive ecology and biotic effects in coastal artificial habitats will improve our capacity for NIS management.

Location and building material determine fouling assemblages within marinas: A case study in Madeira Island (NE Atlantic, Portugal).

Marinas are hubs for non-indigenous species (NIS) and constitute the nodes of a network of highly modified water bodies (HMWB) connected by recreational maritime traffic. Floating structures, such as pontoons, are often the surfaces with higher NIS abundance inside marinas and lead the risk for NIS introduction, establishment and spread. However, there is still little information on how the location within the marina and the substratum type can influence the recruitment of fouling assemblages depending on water parameters and substratum chemical composition. In this study, fouling recruitment was studied using an experimental approach with three materials (basalt, concrete and HDPE plastic) in two sites (close and far to the entrance) in two marinas of Madeira Island (NE Atlantic, Portugal). The structure of benthic assemblages after 6- and 12-months colonization, as well as biotic abundance, NIS abundance, richness, diversity, assemblages' volume, biomass and assemblages' morphology were explored. Differences between marinas were the main source of variation for both 6- and 12-month assemblages, with both marinas having different species composition and biomass. The inner and outer sites of both marinas varied in terms of structure and heterogeneity of assemblages and heterogeneity of morphological traits, but assemblages did not differ among substrata. However, basalt had a higher species richness and diversity while concrete showed a higher bioreceptivity in terms of total biotic coverage than the rest of materials. Overall, differences between and within marinas could be related to their structural morphology. This study can be valuable for management of urban ecosystems, towards an increase in the environmental and ecological status of existing marinas and their HMWB and mitigation coastal ecosystems degradation.

Assessing microplastic exposure of the Critically Endangered Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) on a remote oceanic island.

Microplastics (<5 mm) are a ubiquitous marine pollutant which are highly bioavailable to marine organisms across all trophic levels. Marine predators are especially vulnerable to microplastic pollution through direct and indirect ingestion (e.g., trophic transfer) due to their high trophic position. In particular, oceanic islands are more susceptible to plastic accumulation, increasing the relative number of microplastics in the environment that are available for consumption. The dynamics of microplastic accumulation in marine predators inhabiting remote islands, however, is sparsely documented. Here we describe microplastic exposure in the Critically Endangered Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) from the Madeira archipelago (Northeast Atlantic) using scat-based analysis. Microplastics were recovered from 18 scat samples collected between 2014-2021 and were characterized to the polymer level using Fourier-Transform Infrared (u-FTIR) spectroscopy. A total of 390 microplastic particles were recovered, ranging between 0.2-8.6 particles g-1 dry weight (mean 1.84 ± 2.14 particles g-1) consisting mainly of fragments (69 %) of various sizes and polymer composition (e.g., PE, PET, PS). Microplastic prevalence (100 % of samples analysed) was higher than what has been previously recorded using scat-based analysis in other pinniped species. Our results suggest that the levels of microplastic pollution in the coastal food-web in the Madeira archipelago are relatively high, placing higher-trophic level organisms at increased risk of microplastic consumption, including humans. This study provides the first insights into microplastic exposure to Madeira's monk seals that may contribute to future management decisions for the species and their long-term survival.

Unravelling the Portuguese Coastal and Transitional Waters' Microbial Resistome as a Biomarker of Differential Anthropogenic Impact.

Portugal mainland and Atlantic archipelagos (Madeira and Azores) provide a wide array of coastal ecosystems with varying typology and degrees of human pressure, which shape the microbial communities thriving in these habitats, leading to the development of microbial resistance traits. The samples collected on the Portuguese northeast Atlantic coast waters show an unequivocal prevalence of Bacteria over Archaea with a high prevalence of Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. Several taxa, such as the Vibrio genus, showed significant correlations with anthropogenic pollution. These anthropogenic pressures, along with the differences in species diversity among the surveyed sites, lead to observed differences in the presence and resistance-related sequences' abundance (set of all metal and antibiotic resistant genes and their precursors in pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria). Gene ontology terms such as antibiotic resistance, redox regulation and oxidative stress response were prevalent. A higher number of significant correlations were found between the abundance of resistance-related sequences and pollution, inorganic pressures and density of nearby population centres when compared to the number of significant correlations between taxa abundance at different phylogenetic levels and the same environmental traits. This points towards predominance of the environmental conditions over the sequence abundance rather than the taxa abundance. Our data suggest that the whole resistome profile can provide more relevant or integrative answers in terms of anthropogenic disturbance of the environment, either as a whole or grouped in gene ontology groups, appearing as a promising tool for impact assessment studies which, due to the ubiquity of the sequences across microbes, can be surveyed independently of the taxa present in the samples.

Anthropogenic pressure leads to more introductions: Marine traffic and artificial structures in offshore islands increases non-indigenous species.

Anthropogenic pressures such as the introduction of non-indigenous species (NIS) have impacted global biodiversity and ecosystems. Most marine species spreading outside their natural biogeographical limits are promoted and facilitated by maritime traffic through ballast water and hull biofouling. Propagule pressure plays a primary role in invasion success mixed with environmental conditions of the arrival port. Moreover, with the current ocean sprawl, new substrates are offered for potential NIS recruits. Here, differences in the fouling assemblages thriving inside three different ports/marinas facilities in Madeira Island were assessed for comparison. The locations showed significant differences concerning assemblage structure. Most NIS were detected in plastic floating pontoons. Funchal harbour receives most of the marine traffic in Madeira, acting as the main hub for primary NIS introductions, being recreational boating involved in NIS secondary transfers. Our results highlight the need for future management actions in island ecosystems, particularly monitoring and sampling of recreational boating.

Seasonal variation in microplastics and zooplankton abundances and characteristics: The ecological vulnerability of an oceanic island system.

The ingestion of microplastics (MPs - plastic particles <5 mm) by planktivorous organisms represents a significant threat to marine food webs. To investigate how seasonality might affect plastic intake in oceanic islands' ecosystems, relative abundances and composition of MPs and mesozooplankton samples collected off Madeira Island (NE Atlantic) between February 2019 and January 2020 were analysed. MPs were found in all samples, with fibres accounting for 89 % of the particles. MPs and zooplankton mean abundance was 0.262 items/m3 and 18.137 individuals/m3, respectively. Their monthly variations follow the seasonal fluctuation of environmental parameters, such as currents, chlorophyll-a concentration, sea surface temperature and precipitation intensity. A higher MPs/zooplankton ratio was recorded in the warm season (May-Oct), reaching 0.068 items/individual when considering large-sized particles (1000-5000 µm). This is the first study to assess the seasonal variability of MPs in an oceanic island system providing essential information respecting its ecological impact in pelagic environments.

Blueprint for the ideal microplastic effect study: Critical issues of current experimental approaches and envisioning a path forward.

This article presents a novel conceptual blueprint for an 'ideal', i.e., ecologically relevant, microplastic effect study. The blueprint considers how microplastics should be characterized and applied in laboratory experiments, and how biological responses should be measured to assure unbiased data that reliably reflect the effects of microplastics on aquatic biota. This 'ideal' experiment, although practically unachievable, serves as a backdrop to improve specific aspects of experimental research on microplastic effects. In addition, a systematic and quantitative literature review identified and quantified departures of published experiments from the proposed 'ideal' design. These departures are related mainly to the experimental design of microplastic effect studies failing to mimic natural environments, and experiments with limited potential to be scaled-up to ecosystem level. To produce a valid and generalizable assessment of the effect of microplastics on biota, a quantitative meta-analysis was performed that incorporated the departure of studies from the 'ideal' experiment (a measure of experimental quality) and inverse variance (a measure of the study precision) as weighting coefficients. Greater weights were assigned to experiments with higher quality and/or with lower variance in the response variables. This double-weighting captures jointly the technical quality, ecological relevance and precision of estimates provided in each study. The blueprint and associated meta-analysis provide an improved baseline for the design of ecologically relevant and technically sound experiments to understand the effects of microplastics on single species, populations and, ultimately, entire ecosystems.

Determination of phthalic acid esters and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate in fish and squid using the ammonium formate version of the QuEChERS method combined with gas chromatography mass spectrometry.

In the present study, the ammonium formate version of the QuEChERS method, considered highly advantageous in relation to instrument maintenance and other issues, was applied for the first time to extract a group of twelve phthalic acid esters (PAEs, i.e. dipropyl phthalate, DPP; diisobutyl phthalate, DIBP; dibutyl phthalate, DBP; diisopentyl phthalate, DIPP; di-n-pentyl phthalate, DNPP; dihexyl phthalate, DHP; butyl benzyl phthalate, BBP; dicyclohexyl phthalate, DCHP; di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, DEHP; di-n-octyl phthalate, DNOP; diisononyl phthalate, DINP; and diisodecyl phthalate, DIDP) and one adipate (di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, DEHA) from two species of fish (Scomber colias and Katsuwonus pelamis) and one of squid (Loligo gahi). The method was validated in terms of linearity, trueness and matrix effects. Determination coefficients (R2) for matrix-matched calibration curves were higher than 0.99 in all cases, being the lowest calibration levels in the range 0.5-10 ng/g. Mean recovery values were between 70 and 117% with relative standard deviation values ≤20%. Matrix effects were soft (between -20 and +20%) for most analytes and matrices, except in squid samples, which was mostly medium with a moderate ion suppression. The analysis of 10 samples of each type showed the presence of DIBP, DBP and DEHP at concentrations up to 44.2 ± 2.1 ng/g of wet weight in some of the samples and species, still not representing concerning values when considering the daily intake of such species of seafood in the human diet (tolerable daily intake -TDI- values were not exceeded). Results demonstrated that the ammonium formate version of the QuEChERS method can be applied with success for the extraction and determination of the selected PAEs and DEHA in fish and squid samples.

Catostylus tagi (Class: Scyphozoa, Order: Discomedusae, Suborder: Rhizostomida, Family: Catostylidae) life cycle and first insight into its ecology.

Jellyfish proliferations, which are conspicuous and natural events, cause blooms that may lead to severe consequences for anthropogenic activities and ecosystem structure and functioning. Although research during the last decade has focused on factors influencing the different jellyfish life stages, few species currently have their full life cycle known. In this context, we describe for the first time the developmental stages in the life cycle of Catostylus tagi, from planula to young medusa, reared in the laboratory. The species displays the typical Rhizostomida metagenetic life cycle. Mature scyphistomae display 16 tentacles and a total body length of 1.5 ± 0.2 mm. Only podocyst production and strobilation were observed. Strobilation, occurring continuously under laboratory conditions, was mainly polydisc. The eight-rayed typical ephyrae, with a total body diameter of 2.4 ± 0.4 mm at detachment, showed development typical of the Rhizostomida. As a first step in studying this species' ecology, we also present preliminary assessments of: (i) the influence of different temperature and salinity regimes on planulae survival, settlement and metamorphosis and (ii) the effect of temperature and diet on asexual reproduction. The results showed a high tolerance of planulae to a wide range of salinities (15‰ to 25‰), while polyp development was significantly faster at higher temperature (20-25 °C). Strobilation onset was 2-3 times faster at 20 °C (10.6 ± 5.4 to 15 ± 6.6 day at various tested diet) than at 15 °C (32.2 ± 3 day). Feeding was a key factor as unfed polyps never underwent strobilation during the trial. Finally, we present the spatial and seasonal distribution of C. tagi in the Tagus estuary (Portugal) in 2019, showing its occurrence throughout the year (except in April), with most observations recorded on the northern shoreline. As C. tagi shows the ability to form blooms and a wide tolerance for temperature and salinity (for planulae and medusae stage), it is essential to understand its life cycle.

A global-scale screening of non-native aquatic organisms to identify potentially invasive species under current and future climate conditions.

The threat posed by invasive non-native species worldwide requires a global approach to identify which introduced species are likely to pose an elevated risk of impact to native species and ecosystems. To inform policy, stakeholders and management decisions on global threats to aquatic ecosystems, 195 assessors representing 120 risk assessment areas across all six inhabited continents screened 819 non-native species from 15 groups of aquatic organisms (freshwater, brackish, marine plants and animals) using the Aquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit. This multi-lingual decision-support tool for the risk screening of aquatic organisms provides assessors with risk scores for a species under current and future climate change conditions that, following a statistically based calibration, permits the accurate classification of species into high-, medium- and low-risk categories under current and predicted climate conditions. The 1730 screenings undertaken encompassed wide geographical areas (regions, political entities, parts thereof, water bodies, river basins, lake drainage basins, and marine regions), which permitted thresholds to be identified for almost all aquatic organismal groups screened as well as for tropical, temperate and continental climate classes, and for tropical and temperate marine ecoregions. In total, 33 species were identified as posing a 'very high risk' of being or becoming invasive, and the scores of several of these species under current climate increased under future climate conditions, primarily due to their wide thermal tolerances. The risk thresholds determined for taxonomic groups and climate zones provide a basis against which area-specific or climate-based calibrated thresholds may be interpreted. In turn, the risk rankings help decision-makers identify which species require an immediate 'rapid' management action (e.g. eradication, control) to avoid or mitigate adverse impacts, which require a full risk assessment, and which are to be restricted or banned with regard to importation and/or sale as ornamental or aquarium/fishery enhancement.

Novel approach to enhance coastal habitat and biotope mapping with drone aerial imagery analysis.

Understanding the complex factors and mechanisms driving the functioning of coastal ecosystems is vital towards assessing how organisms, ecosystems, and ultimately human populations will cope with the ecological consequences of natural and anthropogenic impacts. Towards this goal, coastal monitoring programs and studies must deliver information on a range of variables and factors, from taxonomic/functional diversity and spatial distribution of habitats, to anthropogenic stress indicators such as land use, fisheries use, and pollution. Effective monitoring programs must therefore integrate observations from different sources and spatial scales to provide a comprehensive view to managers. Here we explore integrating aerial surveys from a low-cost Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) with concurrent underwater surveys to deliver a novel approach to coastal monitoring. We: (i) map depth and substrate of shallow rocky habitats, and; (ii) classify the major biotopes associated with these environmental axes; and (iii) combine data from i and ii to assess the likely distribution of common sessile organismal assemblages over the survey area. Finally, we propose a general workflow that can be adapted to different needs and aerial platforms, which can be used as blueprints for further integration of remote-sensing with in situ surveys to produce spatially-explicit biotope maps.

Can we shop ourselves to a clean sea? An experimental panel approach to assess the persuasiveness of private labels as a private governance approach to microplastic pollution.

In this study, we conducted an experimental panel survey in Norway, Germany and Portugal to explore consumers' willingness to pay more for products that are certified microplastic free. This is placed within the context of private certification schemes and private governance as mechanisms to increase consumer conscientiousness, establish a higher environmental standard in terms of microplastic and reduce marine pollution. We find that consumers in general are very conscious about the issue, would generally prefer products that are microplastics free, but would seldom choose these when there is a price premium on the label. This had a geographical offset though, with the results aligning with that of political trust in the nation, with Norwegians being less likely to purchase items with price premiums for private governance labels, and Portugal being most likely to - even with a price premium.

Before and after a disease outbreak: Tracking a keystone species recovery from a mass mortality event.

Mass mortality events involving marine taxa are increasing worldwide. The long-spined sea urchin Diadema africanum is considered a keystone herbivore species in the northeastern Atlantic due to its control over the abundance and distribution of algae. After a first registered mass mortality in 2009, another event off the coasts of Madeira archipelago affected this ecologically important species in summer 2018. This study documented the 2018 D. africanum mass mortality event, and the progress of its populations on the southern coast of Madeira island. A citizen science survey was designed targeting marine stakeholders to understand the extent and intensity of the event around the archipelago. Underwater surveys on population density prior, during and after the mass mortality, permitted an evaluation of the severity and magnitude of the event as well as urchin population recovery. A preliminary assessment of causative agents of the mortality was performed. The event was reported in the principal islands of the archipelago reducing the populations up to 90%. However, a fast recovery was registered during the following months, suggesting that the reproductive success was not compromised. Microbiological analyses in symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, during and after the event, was not conclusive. Nevertheless, the bacteria Aeromonas salmonicida, or the gram-negative bacteria, or the interaction of different types of bacteria may be responsible for the disease outbreak. Further studies are needed to assess the role of pathogens in sea urchin mass mortalities and the compound effects that sea urchins have in local habitats and ecological functioning of coastal marine ecosystems.

The Role of Biofilms Developed under Different Anthropogenic Pressure on Recruitment of Macro-Invertebrates.

Microbial biofilms can be key mediators for settlement of macrofoulers. The present study examines the coupled effects of microbial biofilms and local environmental conditions on the composition, structure and functioning of macrofouling assemblages. Settlement of invertebrates over a gradient of human-impacted sites was investigated on local biofilms and on biofilms developed in marine protected areas (MPAs). Special attention was given to the presence of non-indigenous species (NIS), a global problem that can cause important impacts on local assemblages. In general, the formation of macrofouling assemblages was influenced by the identity of the biofilm. However, these relationships varied across levels of anthropogenic pressure, possibly influenced by environmental conditions and the propagule pressure locally available. While the NIS Watersipora subatra seemed to be inhibited by the biofilm developed in the MPA, Diplosoma cf. listerianum seemed to be attracted by biofilm developed in the MPA only under mid anthropogenic pressure. The obtained information is critical for marine environmental management, urgently needed for the establishment of prevention and control mechanisms to minimize the settlement of NIS and mitigate their threats.

Trends in the detection of aquatic non-indigenous species across global marine, estuarine and freshwater ecosystems: A 50-year perspective.

Aim: The introduction of aquatic non-indigenous species (ANS) has become a major driver for global changes in species biogeography. We examined spatial patterns and temporal trends of ANS detections since 1965 to inform conservation policy and management. Location: Global. Methods: We assembled an extensive dataset of first records of detection of ANS (1965-2015) across 49 aquatic ecosystems, including the (a) year of first collection, (b) population status and (c) potential pathway(s) of introduction. Data were analysed at global and regional levels to assess patterns of detection rate, richness and transport pathways. Results: An annual mean of 43 (±16 SD) primary detections of ANS occurred-one new detection every 8.4 days for 50 years. The global rate of detections was relatively stable during 1965-1995, but increased rapidly after this time, peaking at roughly 66 primary detections per year during 2005-2010 and then declining marginally. Detection rates were variable within and across regions through time. Arthropods, molluscs and fishes were the most frequently reported ANS. Most ANS were likely introduced as stowaways in ships' ballast water or biofouling, although direct evidence is typically absent. Main conclusions: This synthesis highlights the magnitude of recent ANS detections, yet almost certainly represents an underestimate as many ANS go unreported due to limited search effort and diminishing taxonomic expertise. Temporal rates of detection are also confounded by reporting lags, likely contributing to the lower detection rate observed in recent years. There is a critical need to implement standardized, repeated methods across regions and taxa to improve the quality of global-scale comparisons and sustain core measures over longer time-scales. It will be fundamental to fill in knowledge gaps given that invasion data representing broad regions of the world's oceans are not yet readily available and to maintain knowledge pipelines for adaptive management.